Barkley’s Model of ADHD

to other negative stimuli in the environment - a phenomenon described as stimulation seeking (Miltenberger, 2008).

Rapport et al. (2001) point out that learners with ADHD demonstrate frequent, rapid shifts in activity, especially under conditions that can be characterised as monotonous or too complex to enable thorough processing of stimuli. These findings may have a direct impact on how the teacher will plan both lessons and the management of the classroom. The process of redirecting attention can be conceptualised as a form of escape from monotonous or high task demand conditions, which is then observed by some teachers as hyperactivity and impulsivity. However, according to Cooper, Smith and Upton (1994) this behaviour should not be seen as actions originating from within the learner, but rather from within the interaction between the child and the teacher. Singh (2012) cautions that it is important to realise that the unacceptable behaviour occurs because it is indirectly reinforced since the teacher has not intervened to correct the behaviour, but has actually allowed it to continue – consequently creating a circumstance which stresses the importance of behavioural interventions by the teacher.

Research findings indicate that frustration of teachers with the behaviour of ADHD learners results in the teacher ignoring the learner (Cooper et al., 1994). Thus, both learner and teacher are often caught in a negative cycle of growing negative interaction. Often neither teacher nor learner can readily escape from this negative cycle, characterised by increasing misbehaviour of the ADHD learner and met by growing negativity of the teacher, which in turn causes the learner to rebel and misbehave even more. (Cooper et al., 1994).

Barkley emphasises that during the course of development, control over a child’s behaviour gradually shifts from external sources to internal rules and standards. Controlling one’s behaviour by internal rules and standards is referred to as self-control. Accordingly, Hamilton et al. (2006) points out that this model posits that learners with the Hyperactive type of ADHD does not have a deficit of attention, but rather of self-control and executive functioning. For example, young learners have very limited ability to refrain from acting on impulse. Instead, it is typical of a young child to “act out” the things that come to mind spontaneously. In addition, when a young child is able to refrain from acting on impulse, it is often because something in the immediate surroundings keeps him from doing so. For example, the child may refrain from throwing a toy when frustrated because his mother is present and he knows he will be punished, should he continue. This scenario differs from an older child who may also have the impulse to smash a toy, but who does not act on this impulse because he can anticipate the following consequences:

1. He won’t have the toy to play with at a later stage.

2. His parents would be upset if he broke the new toy.

3. He would be upset for letting down his parents.

4. He would be upset because he let his temper get out of control — he let himself down.

In this example the child has learned to “inhibit” and regulate his behaviour based on internal controls and guidelines, rather than on the immediate threat of external consequences.

Figure 2.4 Barkley’s model of ADHD (Barkley, 2002)

Self-Regulation as the Core Deficit in ADHD

Barkley (2007) argues that the critical deficit associated with ADHD is the failure to develop the capacity for “self-control”, also referred to as “self-regulation”. He suggests that this results primarily from biological reasons, and not from parenting. As a result of a core deficit in self-regulation, specific and important psychological processes and functions sub- sequently fail to develop in an optimal way. Barkley (2012:online) also links these functions with Executive Functioning which can be referred to as “…those neuropsychological processed needed to sustain problem-solving toward a goal”. These include the following:

* Working Memory

Working memory refers to the learner’s ability to recall past events and manipulate them in the mind in order to make predictions about the future, with specific reference to the results of actions taken. This is an important part of dealing effectively with day-to-day situ- ations which Barkley believes is diminished in individuals with ADHD. In fact, recent research has documented a deficit in working memory in individuals with ADHD (Dendy, 2011:online).

* Internalisation of Speech

Internalisation of speech refers to the ability of the learner to use internally generated speech to guide the individual’s behaviour and actions. Internal speech can be referred to as talking to oneself. It aids ADHD children to regulate and guide their behaviour and to solve problems which they face. Barkley (2007) argues that this capacity develops later and imperfectly in individuals with ADHD.

* Sense of Time

A sense of time refers to the ability to keep track of the passage of time and to alter one’s behaviour in relation to time. Learners often need to estimate the time required to accom- plish a particular task or assignment in order to determine whether the time they are spending on a particular task is proportionate to what is available. Barkley (2007) suggests that the psychological sense of time is impaired in learners with ADHD. As a result learners are unable to modify their behaviour in response to real world time demands, especially in the classroom during assessments.

* Goal Directed Behaviour

Goal directed behaviour refers to the ability to establish a goal in one’s mind and use the internal image of that goal to shape, guide, and direct one’s behaviour. Goal directed behaviour is a vitally important capacity for a learner as it underpins sustained effort and

persistence. Barkley (2007) argues that learners with ADHD have great difficulty making a sustained effort to achieve long-term goals.

Conceptualising ADHD as a disorder of self-regulation, and not a disorder of attention, has significant implications for understanding the difficulties experienced by learners diagnosed with ADHD as well as teachers who have to manage them in their classrooms. It can assist them in coping with and managing ADHD more effectively. Barkley (2003) argues that ADHD learners may not lack the skills and knowledge to be successful, but rather their prob- lems with self-regulation often prevent them from applying their knowledge and skills when required. As Barkley (2003:79) aptly puts it: “ADHD is more a problem of doing what one knows rather than knowing what to do.” For example, even though ADHD learners may know the steps to follow in order to complete a school project properly, they may not act on this knowledge because of problems with managing time and using a long-term goal to guide behaviour.

As far as following classroom rules and completion of work are concerned, Barkley (2007) also emphasises the need to provide external prompts. Writing rules down on signs around the classroom is one way of doing it. The teacher may post class rules on an index card taped to the learner’s desk. During activities, one possibility is to have learners wear head- phones and listen to a recording that provides frequent reminders to stay on task, to write neatly, and to check their work. In all of these examples, the principle is to compensate for the learners’ inability to control their behaviour through internal means by providing as many external prompts, reminders and motivation as possible.