BACKGROUND TO DENTAL MODIFICATION
2.3. A brief history of dental modification practices 1. Dental modification as a cultural practice
Dental modification is a fascinating cultural practice that has enjoyed a long and diverse history in many populations around the world. The modifications often involved the upper and/or lower incisors. According to Van Reenen (1977) and Bachrnayer (1982), dental modification of the teeth was usually a tradition found amongst the people who practiced it. Many scientists (Davies
,1972, Van Reenen, 1977, Bachrnayer, 1982, Gould, Farman and Corbitt, 1984, Scott and Turner, 1997) agree that the incentive for the modification may have related to rites of passage, status differentiation, religious connotation, simple cosmetics or other cultural motivations i.e. ethnic markers or tribal identification. Also, the mutilations were in some cases undertaken as a treatment for illness (Erlandsson and Backman, 1999).
According to Kennedy, Misra and Burrow (1981), up until the 1980
's, dentalmodification was still practiced in India among many tribal populations. The most common forms of dental modification here were notching, cutting and chipping of the occlusal surface and the drilling of holes on the anterior surfaces for stone inlays in the incisor and canine teeth
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2.3.2. Dental modification in Africa
During recent decades African dental modification has been found almost exclusively in tribal people (Briedenhann and Van Reenen, 1985). Erlandsson and Backman (1999), explain why it is more common amongst tribal people by stating that the practice of dental modification is not generally found in countries where urbanisation and education are the factors, as the advancement in education and communication tend to change some of the existing culture.
Van Reenen (1978a, 1978b, 1986) by himself and in collaboration with Briedenhann
( 1985 , 1986) has written much about the practice of dental modification amongst the
tribal Namibian people. However, very little is known about the reasons for the practice, as it did not always coincide with the onset of puberty as stated by the
various tribes. Traditions such as dental modification tend to endure through the ages, but there is verification that the practice is disappearing among the peoples of
Namibia although it is usually still encountered among the older people . The San did not have a specific style of dental modification of their own but copied a style
practised by other tribes (Van Reenen and Briedenhann , 1985 , 1986, Van Reenen, 1986). The style of dental modification however varied from one group to another and had tribal significance. Each tribe had adopted an individual style of dental modification, which was linked to the geographical distribution of the tribes (Van Reenen, 1986, Briedenhann, 1987).
The habit of dental modification was a part of tribal rites of passage . The practice is
believed to enhance beauty among the Chokwe (found in Angola and The Congo) .
The women of the Mhuila tribe of Southern Angola have their two upper central
(maxillary) incisors removed as it is their traditional beautification and is carried out after puberty. The Tonga people in southern Zambia also carry out a similar practice.
However, they remove all 4 maxillary incisors and tooth removal occurred in both sexes. According to Jones (1992) David Livingston alluded to the source of the custom, which reflected their agricultural life. It was said that their object was to be like oxen; and those who retain their teeth, they were considered to resemble zebras. Oxen were venerated but zebras were hated. Both the Mhuila and the Tonga people raise cattle (Jones, 1992, 2001). Singer (1953) also observed this practice in Namibia and Angola The four upper incisors were knocked out according to tribal custom having no connection to puberty rites with the reasoning that it was done so that they did not resemble zebras but oxen.
Van Reenen (1977) and Singer (1953), state that dental modification was not regarded as a custom practised by the black peoples residing in South Africa. Van Reenen (1978b) mentions that the contact in Southern Africa between white and black people over the last three centuries has had a vast impact on certain traditional cultural practices of the indigenous black populations. Improvements in communication and education seem to have had an important influence in dropping certain black tribal customs such as dental modification.
It was reported by Shaw in 1931 that some South African negroes that he examined had modified teeth. The tribes included Zulus, Xhosas, Basutos, the tribes of Namibia and some tribes in Zimbabwe. All were males and none of these had extracted teeth.
It should be noted that Shaw's observations were done on skeletons from a cadaver collection. Similarly, Davies (1972) mentioned that tooth evulsion was found 'from
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