A comparative analysis of Technical and Vocational Education and Training policy in selected African countries.

Keywords: cross-national comparative study, technical and vocational education (TVET), education policy, African countries, South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria. COTVET Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training CSSPS Computerized School Selection Program System.

Orientation and Background to the Study

Introduction

International context of TVET

Background of the study

Negative perceptions such as these can be attributed to weak VET policy, which too often relegates the sector to the least desirable status in the overall education system in many countries (Boateng, 2010). The failure of VET programs has been attributed to poor planning and also the wrong selection of planning personnel (Usman & Pascal, 2009), exacerbated by the lack of policies and poor implementation (UNESCO, 2008).

Purpose and rationale of the study

Ghana's inclusion in the study was informed by the particular focus of the technical and vocational education and training system in Ghana towards competency-based education and training delivery. Comparative study is essential for improving practice and for providing knowledge during a reform process (Vos & Brits, 1990; Kubow & Fossum, 2007), and therefore the study was designed to explore, analyze and compare countries' VET policies. selected Africans with a view to determining their similarities and differences.

Significance of the study

Research questions

Research design and methodology

In light of the focus, the research design and the research questions, cross-national comparative methods (Halls, 1990;. The research focused on analysis and comparison of TVET policies of the selected African countries.

Ethical considerations and trustworthiness

Research methodology is generally based on the research paradigm (Cohen, Manion & . Morrison, 2011), the research purpose and the research questions. To facilitate my analysis in general and the coding process in particular, the NVivo software package was used.

Areas of study

Overview of TVET in South Africa

Skills Development in South Africa
Post-Apartheid Technical and Vocational Education and Training Provision
Overview of Policies and legislation impacting on skills development in South Africa

South African Qualifications Authority Act No. 58 of 1995
The Further Education and Training Colleges Act 16 of 2006
National Plan for Further Education and Training Colleges 2008
The Skills Development Act 97 of 1998
The Education White Paper 4 of 1998
White Paper for Post-School Education and Training 2013
Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative in South Africa (AsgiSA)
Sector Education Training Authorities (SETA)
National Skills Fund (NSF)
Policy on Professional Qualifications for Lecturers in Technical and Vocational
Synthesis of Skills Development in South Africa

50 public technical and vocational education (TVET) colleges (formerly known as further education and training colleges;. Selected qualifications for technical and vocational educators are listed in the table below.

Table 1-1: Qualifications selected for lecturers in TVET (RSA, 2013a, p. 13) NQF

Overview of TVET in Ghana

Ghana Draft TVET policy (2004)
Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET)
Skills Development Fund
National Context of TVET in Ghana

Accelerated Development Plan for Education; and the adoption of the Council for Technical and Vocational Education (COTVET) Act (718) of 2006 (COTVET, 2012). Technical and vocational education in Ghana is provided by various departments, ministries and agencies.

Overview of TVET in Nigeria

National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)
Imperative for Establishment of National Vocational Qualifications Framework in Nigeria
Industrial Training Fund (ITF)
Skills Development Context in Nigeria

Carrying out periodic evaluations of the employment conditions of the staff of colleges and technical colleges and making recommendations thereon to the federal government; To achieve this, the Council took the lead in establishing the National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF), which was subsequently approved by the Federal Executive Council (NBTE, 2011).

Challenges facing TVET globally

The perception that TVET is for dropouts may account for the government neglect of the sector that many authors claim (Oketch, 2007). The low status and prestige of the sector (McGrath, 2005) also extends to the individual who has a TVET qualification (Osuji, 2003).

Outline of the thesis

Likewise, the African Union often cites ineffective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for reviewing TVET programs by program providers for possible curriculum reforms. Comparative categories that emerged from the analysis of the policies are tabulated for further clarity.

Literature Review

Introduction

Relevant Policy Literature

Policy Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Theories of Policy and Policy Analysis
Categories of Public Policies

Material and Symbolic Policies
Substantive and Procedural Policies
Distributive, Regulatory, Self-Regulatory and Redistributive Policies

Policy Making Process
Policy Implementation

Policy Implementation: This phase of the policy making process involves the implementation of policies adopted by relevant agencies and departments. The roles of human resources are very critical in determining the success of policy implementation.

Figure 2.1: Policy Implementation Model Process (Meter & Horn, 1975) (Adapted)

Relationship between Policy and Practice

Dispositions of implementers: The attitudes of policy implementers have a major influence on the success or failure of policy implementation.

TVET Practices

It also facilitates access, mobility and progression within education, training and career pathways and redresses inequities in the education and training system (RSA, 1995). VET practice in South Africa includes employer input and industry involvement in skills development (African Union, 2007).

How Socio-Political and Economic Factors Affect TVET Implementation

In Ghana, the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET) coordinates, regulates and supervises the development and provision of technical and vocational education and training in the country. Post-apartheid education and training reforms are mechanisms for redressing injustices that persisted during the apartheid regime, as the education and skills of new entrants into the workplace are very important in shaping the ways in which inequalities develop over time (Seekings 2007).

TVET MODELS

Liberal Market TVET Model
State-Regulated Bureaucratic Model
Dual System TVET Model

Technical and vocational education and training are therefore an extension of the national education system. Provision and development of technical and vocational education and training is the sole responsibility of the national government.

TVET policies across nations

Philosophical foundations of TVET policies

On the issue of governance in the VET sector, Prosser's position was that VET should be separated from general education. Dewey's pragmatic philosophy of education is supported by Zhou (2005), who asserts that education and training should focus on the development of the learner and the community, with the interests and development of each learner being the primary focus.

Global perspectives on national qualifications frameworks

According to Zhou (2005), the pragmatic philosophy of education has had a significant influence on the transformation of teaching and delivery methods, textbooks and curriculum reforms. Regarding teaching and delivery methods, the influence of Dewey's philosophy can be seen in the introduction of project methods that make the system student-centered (Zhou, 2005).

Quality assurance in TVET

Program monitoring and evaluation is a process of determining the effectiveness and quality of a program and the readiness of VET institutions to deliver programs. VET programs do not respond to the needs of the labor market in some countries due to the lack of an effective monitoring and evaluation system.

International perspectives on TVET curricula

A CBT curriculum is informed by the demands of industry and the economy, focusing on the skills and competencies required by the labor market (Baffour-Awuah, 2010; COTVET, 2012; Anane, 2013). Industry participation is essential in the design, development, review and implementation of CBT curriculum (Boahin & Hofman, 2013; COTVET, 2012).

Competency-based education and training

Among the countries that have introduced competency-based education and training are Australia, Canada, Ghana, Japan, the Netherlands, South Africa and Great Britain (McGrath, 2005; Boahin, Eggink & Hofman 2013; Anane, 2013). Competency-based education and training may also emphasize rote learning rather than full understanding of the learning process or the principle behind the task performed (Kodiappan, 2011).

TVET instruction and programme delivery internationally

Neal (2011) also emphasizes the need for flexible and responsive program guidance and delivery, stating that VET providers need to understand industry requirements so that delivery mechanisms can be modified to suit the provision of skills required by industries. Video is an effective instructional and delivery tool in teaching practical skills because it combines the visual and audio aspects of instruction, thus ensuring a better understanding of the concept (Hampton, 2002).

Assessment in TVET

Student assessment is a medium for determining the effectiveness of an education system and of the delivery method (Curtis, 2010). Student assessment is one of the fundamental ways to identify weaknesses in TVET delivery methods.

Funding TVET

Provision of sufficiently qualified staff and teaching and learning materials depends on adequate funding of the sector. Furthermore, teaching and learning materials and equipment in the TVET sector are expensive and when there is a lack of funds to acquire up-to-date teaching and learning equipment, TVET institutions forced to make do with outdated equipment will not be able to produce graduates with the necessary equipment. skills for employment (Kingombe, 2011; Oketch, 2007).

International perspectives on industry–institution collaboration

Quality TVET is the foundation of all social and economic development, and adequate financing is the foundation on which it rests. This in turn enables TVET institutions to offer programs necessary for the industry and the economy.

Sites for TVET delivery

Articulation also provides flexibility in the TVET system when it enables students to study at their own pace by leaving their training and resuming it later to suit their own convenience (African Union, 2007).

TVET lecturers

Conceptual framework

Philosophy, as suggested in the graphic presentation of the conceptual framework, is the source of motivation for practice. The curriculum component of the conceptual framework refers to the organized knowledge imparted to students.

Implications of the literature

Education or school reform efforts have influenced technical and vocational education and training curricula. This study attempts to compare technical and vocational education and training policies and their implementation in selected African countries.

General Principles: Comparative Education, Research Design and Methodology

Introduction

Comparative education in international context

Comparative study provides an opportunity for countries to learn from each other (Raffe et al., 1999). Comparative study involves the analysis of education policies of different countries with a view to understanding their educational challenges and their proposed solutions (Chaube & . Chaube, 1993;).

Comparative education methodology

According to Kim et al. 2010), sharing experiences with policies from different countries develops a neutral basis for mutual understanding between nations. Comparative research also generates information and data for theoretical and philosophical assumptions about educational issues, where theoretical and philosophical assumptions underlie the educational systems of one country and inform educational reforms in another (Kubow & Fossum, 2007).

Research design

Research methodology

The study is qualitative and interpretive in that it deals with the meanings, interpretations and meaning of phenomena (Neuman, 2006), and it is comparative in that it explores and compares the policies of different countries (Chaube & Chaube, 1993; Sodhi, 1993; Kubow & Fossum, 2007).

Choice of Documents

Cross-national comparative study

The main focus in an international comparative study is on the structure and organization of education in different countries (Kubow & Fossum, 2007) and a number of authors (Vos & . Brits, 1990; Kubow & Fossum, 2007; Chaube & Chaube, 1993; Kelly , Altbach & Arnove, 1982; Cowen, 1990; Wolhuter, 2007) emphasize the usefulness of this approach for improving and reforming education and training systems. In reforming or transforming VET systems, international comparative research offers numerous advantages and can be seen as indispensable for identifying best practices (Kubow & Fossum, 2007; Lauglo, 2006.

Policy analysis

Comparative TVET policy analysis

In some cases, cross-national TVET comparison reveals similarities and variations that reflect different political priorities and economic strengths in the countries concerned (Lauglo, 1993; African Union, 2007). In general, cross-national comparative studies are driven by a desire to learn from TVET structures and policies in other countries or to assess a given TVET system with a view to achieving improvements through better understanding of the system (Misko, 2006; Guo. & Lamb ), 2010; Keating et al., 2002).

Developing categories for TVET policy analysis

Through a system of performance evaluation obtained through international comparisons, progress or limitations in policies, programs and structures related to the performance of TVET systems in different countries can be identified or highlighted, as well as lessons learned for the local context. Comparative analysis of TVET policies highlights the similarities and differences of TVET systems and provides insight into how to improve TVET practices based on experiences from other countries (Schnarr, Yang & Gleissner, 2009).

Table 3-1: Development of comparative categories for TVET policy area Categories/policy areas based

Data collection

Document analysis
Interview

Data Collection Process
Sampling

The purpose of the interview was stated in the letter seeking their consent and also explained before the actual interview. Purposive sampling requires that the participants selected for the study should have broad general knowledge of the topic and whose experience is considered typical (Coyne, 1997).

Data analysis

Purposive sampling is a technique commonly used in qualitative research for the identification and selection of information-rich data. The NVivo software does not perform the analysis, but allows the organization of data for coding, recoding, and other processes (Gunbayi & Ozel, 2012).

Coding

Resources, as used in the NVivo package refers to the total number of materials or resources coded in the corresponding node, which are stored in the "internal", "external" or "memo" folders (O'Neill, 2013).

Ethical considerations

Ethical considerations in policy analysis

Achieving trustworthiness in qualitative research

Transferability
Credibility
Confirmability
Dependability

Data for the study was generated through the analysis of TVET policy documents of the countries surveyed. All data generated for the study was free from assumptions, supporting the credibility of the research processes and findings.

Preliminary research process

Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Nigeria

Introduction

TVET philosophy

Integration of theory and practice is part of the philosophy that informs technical and vocational education in Nigeria. The interviewed practitioners of TVET indicated that the curriculum for technical and vocational education consists of both theory and practice, as traditional subjects such as English, mathematics and physics are part of the curriculum.

Concept of TVET in Nigeria

However, an interview with TVET professionals in Nigeria revealed that the public perceives technical and vocational education and training as a sector for students with academic difficulties. The negative public perception of technical and vocational education and training poses a challenge to the sector as it is seen as education and training for academically weak and low-status students.

Goals of TVET in Nigeria

Similarly, Participant 11 noted that the goals of technical and vocational education and training are far from being achieved in Nigeria. The objectives of technical and vocational education and training in Nigeria require that individuals be provided with the necessary skills for employment and for economic and commercial development.

Funding TVET in Nigeria

The Industrial Training Fund is a government initiative in Nigeria that supports the development of technical and vocational training at all levels in both the public and private sectors. While commenting on the funding of technical and vocational education, Participant 9 expressed that additional funds are needed for the development and progress of the TVET sector.

TVET curriculum

The above participant's answers imply that technical and vocational education and training curricula are not responsive to the needs of industry and the economy. The curriculum needs to be revised to reflect skills and programs that respond to the needs of the student, the community, the economy and the nation as a whole.

Information and communication technology

Information and communication technology improves effective teaching and learning, but most schools in the area are not equipped with ICT equipment. The responses of the participants showed that the quality of education and training can be increased through information and communication technology, but they lamented that most educational institutions do not have adequate ICT facilities.

Quality assurance through monitoring, supervision and inspection

Recognizing the need for coherence and quality in the technical and vocational education and training system, the VET regulatory body (NBTE) led the creation of the National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF) and was approved by the Federal Executive Council (NBTE, 2011). Ensuring and maintaining the quality and uniform standard of VET provision is a challenge in the technical and vocational education and training sector.

Assessment: centralised TVET examinations and certification

However, challenges associated with the centrally coordinated examinations as indicated by Participant 10 above include delayed arrival of question papers to schools and examination venues. As the final examinations are nationally and centrally coordinated, the examinations usually do not start as planned due to late arrival of the questions.

Centrally coordinated partnership between industry and TVET institutions

Identifying the relevant industry and accepting students for the industrial connection were some of the challenges faced by the Industrial Work Experience Program for Students (SIWES). From the participants' responses above, it appears that students are moving from one sector to another in search of acceptance for the industrial bonding exercise.

Minimum entry requirements and sites for TVET delivery

However, in practice, several students are admitted to technical and vocational education and training institutions at various levels without fulfilling the admission requirements. The responses of the participants show that some students enter institutions of professional and vocational education without fulfilling the enrollment conditions.

Planning and administration of teacher education

The National Education Policy (FRN, 2004) states that entry requirements for technical college include Junior School Certificate (JSC) and outstanding performance in craft training centres. The Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE) is set in national policy as the minimum qualification for the teaching profession.

The goals of teacher education in Nigeria

Teacher education programs must be structured to equip teachers to effectively carry out their duties. Teacher education must continue to take account of changes in methodology and in the curriculum. Broader goals for teacher education incorporated in national policy are: social skills that promote peaceful and harmonious coexistence between teachers and people in society;.

Challenges of TVET practice in Nigeria

Responses from the participants revealed how technical and vocational education and training was perceived by society in Nigeria. According to the participant, technical and vocational education and training curriculum consists of both practice and theory.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Ghana

Introduction

TVET governance in Ghana

TVET governance at institutional levels
Governance of the informal TVET sector

The participant's responses revealed that technical and vocational education and training in Ghana is provided by various agencies and ministries. The Council's duties include regulating the provision of technical and vocational education and training in both the public and private sectors.

TVET philosophy in Ghana

The provision of skills and competences in each of these sectors will be incorporated into the competence-based education and training system. The responses indicated that the reform of the technical and vocational education and training system aims to develop a VET system with the capacity to produce a globally competitive workforce and provide the skills needed for employment in order to alleviate poverty.

Goals of TVET in Ghana

Poor quality training is an obstacle to providing skills needed for employment and poverty reduction and to producing a responsive workforce that can compete internationally. The participant indicated that the poor quality of training would be attributed to a lack of adequate teaching and learning facilities.

Funding TVET in Ghana

General TVET funding
Private sector TVET funding

Sources of funds for the Skills Development Fund include the Government of Ghana, levies and development partners, and the fund is used to support the development and provision of technical and vocational education and training at various levels (GoG, 2004; COTVET, 2012). Interviews with TVET practitioner in Ghana revealed that the technical and vocational education and training sector is severely underfunded in the country.

Competency-based TVET curriculum

The responses revealed that the majority of technical institutes and colleges do not seem to be ready for the implementation of the competency-based TVET curriculum. The participant noted that the technical and vocational teachers as well as the supervisory body were not quite ready for the competence-based TVET approach.

Improving relevance through information and communication technology

However, an interview with the TVET practitioner revealed that information and communications technology is not fully integrated into the TVET curriculum. Although the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training provided recommendations for the integration of information and communication technology into the technical and vocational education and training program, the participant's responses indicated that there were no computers available for students' use in school.

National qualifications framework

Quality assurance in TVET

Interviews with technical and vocational education and training practitioners in Ghana revealed that although the role of the quality assurance system has been recognised, it has not yet been implemented in the TVET sector. The participant's responses showed that in practice no quality assurance mechanisms have been implemented in the technical and vocational education and training system.

Improving quality through programme monitoring and evaluation

Instruction and programme delivery

Delivery of competence-based technical and vocational education will be successful if the teachers are fully prepared and familiar with the system. Competency-based technical and vocational education requires a strong partnership between TVET providers and industry.

Assessment and certification

Practitioners of technical and vocational education and training in Ghana have indicated that challenges associated with the introduction and delivery of competency-based technical and vocational education and training include the unpreparedness of teachers for the system. Different assessment methods adopted by different TVET providers will provide qualifications and certificates with different standards and qualities.

Student enrolment in TVET institutions

TVET stakeholders recommend that guidelines be developed for the provision of appropriate facilities for women in TVET institutions. Challenges associated with enrollment in TVET institutions include low enrollment of students in TVET programs.

Public-private partnership in competency- based education and training

The participants indicated that enrollments at technical and vocational education and training institutions were low compared to enrollments at grammar schools. The low enrollment in the technical and vocational education and training institutions can be attributed to society's perception that the TVET sector is intended for students who could not perform academically.

TVET delivery Sites and entry requirements

Technical vocational education and training is taught in different types of institutions in Ghana and at different levels. Mandates of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Council in Ghana include the regulation and supervision of all TVET providers with a view to maintaining standards at all levels of TVET provision in the country.

Challenges of TVET practice in Ghana

Technical and vocational education and training in Ghana is provided by various institutions under various ministries. Participants' responses indicated that technical and vocational education and training in Ghana is underfunded.

TVET lecturers

An interview with a technical and vocational education and training provider in Ghana revealed that TVET teachers were not fully prepared to implement competency-based TVET. The next chapter presents an analysis of technical and vocational education and training in South Africa.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training in South Africa

Introduction

Centralised TVET governance in South Africa

Technical and vocational education and training schools have been moved to the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). The responses revealed that the supervision of colleges and vocational training colleges and their management rests with the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET).

TVET philosophy in South Africa

The responses of Participant 3, who is from South Africa, indicated that the technical and vocational education and training curriculum encompasses both theory and practice. The philosophy of the technical and vocational education and training system in South Africa also includes equal access to education, training and employment.

Vision for the TVET system

Interviews with technical and vocational education practitioners in South Africa showed that universities find it difficult to consider TVET qualifications as a requirement for admission. AsgiSA aimed to advance the mandate of the South African Government to halve unemployment and accelerate employment equity, which is an integrated vision for technical and vocational education in South Africa.

Concept of TVET in South Africa

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Policy Paper (RSA, 2008) in South Africa suggests that technical and vocational education and training can provide the skills and competencies needed for employment and economic growth. This negative public perception of TVET is contrary to the way the sector has been designed, as stated in the policy document, and therefore poses a challenge to the TVET system.

TVET for social and economic development

In South Africa, technical and vocational education and training is recognized as a system with the capacity to redress injustices and influence the socio-political development of the country. Technical and vocational education and training is necessary for the social and political development of a democratic South Africa.

Funding as a vehicle for access, redress, quality and equity

Funding is needed to purchase teaching and learning facilities necessary for the provision and delivery of responsive technical and vocational education and training. Adequate funding is necessary for the provision of high-quality technical and vocational education and training and for the development of high-quality and responsive TVET teachers.

TVET Curriculum

Responsiveness to the needs of students
Responsiveness to the needs of the economy
Theory, general education and practice in the TVET curriculum

Technical and Vocational Education and Training Policies (RSA, 1998a; 2008) of South Africa note the need for the TVET curriculum to remain responsive to the needs of different economic sectors and recommend that it should undergo periodic review to be carried out by a inter- Provincial Committee for TVET Institutions, with the approval of the Heads of Education Departments Committee (HEDCOM) and the Minister of Education. The theoretical part of the curriculum for technical and vocational education would form a strong basis for the learning process and for higher education and vocational training.

Responsive and demand-driven TVET

The theoretical component of the VET curriculum would support the development and acquisition of technical and professional skills. Therefore, program offerings in technical and vocational education and training institutions are demand-driven, based on the needs of the economy and the labor market.

ICT as a tool for access and improving quality

The responses indicate that computers enhance and enhance the teaching process and also facilitate the student's learning process. By using computers, students can repeat a learning process over and over until the lesson is sufficiently understood.

The National Qualifications Framework in the transformation of TVET

Centralised quality assurance for uniform quality and standards

All vocational education and training programs offered at public FET colleges will be quality assured by Umalusi or an assessment body delegated to perform such a function. All vocational and trade programs will be quality assured by the QCTO or a statutory body delegated to perform such a function.

Monitoring and evaluation in TVET

The quality of vocational and vocational qualifications offered by FET colleges at level 5 and above is ensured by the HEQC and QCTO respectively (RSA, 2008, p. 41). The participants' responses revealed that the final examinations are centrally controlled and quality assured by the General and Further Education and Training Quality Assurance Council, Umalusi.

Indicators of success in TVET

Strong and effective monitoring and evaluation would determine the readiness, strengths and weaknesses of the system to highlight areas requiring improvement and indicate appropriate corrective actions. Monitoring and evaluation would include the analysis of results and performance, their measurement and comparison with the set goals of the system being monitored and evaluated.

Instruction and programme delivery

Promoting access through flexible programme delivery
Funding to improve delivery of TVET programmes
Lecturer training for improved quality of delivery

For colleges, improving the quality of the delivery of education, as their core business, must remain paramount (2008, p. 45). However, responses from interviews conducted with technical and vocational education and training practitioners revealed that funding for teacher training to improve the quality of delivery and recruitment of qualified teachers was insufficient.

Student assessment

Centralised examination and assessment
TVET certificates and qualifications

In relation to the National Higher Education and Vocational Education and Training Plan, the minimum requirements for obtaining TVET certificates and qualifications should be National Certificates (Vocational Education) at Levels 2, 3 and 4 of the NQF. The national certificate (vocational training) at levels 2, 3 and 4 sets out the minimum requirements for obtaining the national vocational certificates.

Student population

Increased student enrolment in TVET

The National Certificate (Vocational) is] a qualification at levels 2, 3 and 4 of the NQF, which aims to solve the problem of poor quality programmes, lack of relevance to the needs of the economy and low technical and cognitive skills of the FET college graduates (2008 , p. 11). According to the plan, these NQF level 2, 3 and 4 TVET qualifications are expected to improve the overall quality of the TVET sector, address the problem of poor quality programs and improve the practical and theoretical knowledge of TVET graduates.

Skills development through collaboration with industry

Access to education and training should be encouraged to enable students to acquire skills and knowledge necessary for integration into the labor market and to become useful members of society. Integrating industry-based education into technical and vocational education and training programs would ensure that TVET programs are more responsive to the needs of the economy and the labor market; facilitate employment and promote a smooth transition of TVET graduates from school to the labor market.

TVET delivery sites and entry qualifications

Although the policy stated that colleges should “work directly with industry to provide accommodation to students as part of their course support” (RSA, 2008, p. 45), an interview with a TVET provider revealed that in in practice, students look for jobs themselves. Technical and vocational education and training is also provided in higher education institutions, which include universities, for higher qualifications and vocational training (RSA, 2013a; HRDC, 2014).

Articulation between TVET programmes

However, the participants pointed out that people with a matric also apply and get access to start from the 10th grade.

Challenges of TVET practice in South Africa

People who attended technical and vocational educational institutions were considered low status people. People who attended technical and vocational educational institutions were looked down upon.

Responsive TVET lecturers

Comparison and Discussion of Findings

Introduction
Tabular cross-national comparison of TVET policies
Similarities in the TVET policies of South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria

Governance of TVET systems
Philosophical principles of TVET
Concept, goals and vision of TVET
TVET curriculum
Mode of instruction and programme delivery
Examination and assessment
Information and communication technology
Funding of TVET
TVET delivery sites and entry requirements
TVET Challenges
TVET lecturers
Student population
Partnership with industry

Differences between the TVET policies of South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria

Programme monitoring and evaluation
National qualifications frameworks
Quality assurance
Articulation
Strengths of TVET systems

Similarly, in Ghana, TVET is centrally coordinated and regulated by the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET), and in Nigeria, TVET provision is centrally and nationally coordinated and regulated by the National Board of Technical Education (NBTE). The administration of private technical and vocational education and training schools falls under their respective Directors General (UNESCO, 2014) and must meet all requirements necessary for the provision of quality TVET programs and be appropriately registered as provided for in the Further Education and Training Colleges Act 16 of 2006 (RSA, 2006a).

Table 7-1: Comparative analysis of TVET in South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria

Insights, Implications and Conclusion

Introduction

Retrospection and reflection

Reflection on the background and purpose of the study

Reflection on related literature

Reflection on research methodology

Reflection on the conceptual framework

Responding to the research questions (major findings)

Q 1: The principal features of TVET policies in South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria
Q 2: How and why these TVET policies features coincide or differ
Q 3: How technical and vocational education and training is experienced in South Africa,

Gaps and silences

Relevance, value and contributions of this research to knowledge

Implications and insights for TVET policy (Policy learning)