Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has devastating effects on various parts of the environment and is a source of environmental degradation and pollution. Insufficient understanding of the environmental and social problems of ASGM in the Giyani Greenstone Belt has led to a lack of mitigation strategies to mitigate such problems.
Background to the Research Problem
In addition, artisanal and small-scale mining activities are associated with socio-economic issues such as child labor and health and safety issues. In addition, it will make artisanal and small-scale mining more efficient, productive and prosperous.
Objectives of the Research
To assess the effects of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) on vegetation cover in the study area. Identify and assess socio-economic impacts associated with artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities, and.
Research Questions
To determine the effects of artisanal and small-scale mining on soil and water quality in the study area. To develop management strategies to address the overlapping issues of ASGM and mitigate the adverse impact of artisanal gold mining operations on the environment.
Justification of the Research
One of the objectives of this research was to assess the socio-economic issues of artisanal and small-scale mining in Giyani Greenstone Belt. Overall, this research will establish an action plan to enhance the positive aspects of the operations and mitigate the adverse effects.
Description of the Study Area
- Geographical location of the study area
- Climate of the area
- Topography and drainage pattern
- Pedology
- Land use and vegetation cover
In the south-southwestern parts of the study area, including Ntsami and Letaba, the sub-basins are characterized by poor drainage and are therefore considered endorheic (Chauke, 2011). Soil formation throughout the study area reflects the strong influence of the underlying rocks, which are mainly climatic features and biological activity.
Operational Definitions
Vegetation in the study area is classified as low mopaneveld savanna, characterized by a mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses (Rutherford et al., 2006; Makhado et al., 2009). Social impacts: is the effect of artisanal and small-scale mining on the social fabric of communities and the well-being of individuals and families (Hentschel et al., 2003).
Organisation of the dissertation
The fourth chapter aims to present and interpret the environmental and socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the Giyani Greenstone Belt. The fifth chapter presents and explains strategies for managing the environmental and socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining.
Regional Geology and History of Mining
This chapter presents a review of previously published material on small-scale mining and its associated environmental impacts. In addition, the chapter provides an overview of the management strategies used to address the overlapping issues of artisanal and small-scale mining and some of the overlapping issues.
Issues of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining contribute to poverty alleviation by creating employment opportunities. In artisanal and small-scale mining; working conditions are not the most favorable in many countries.
Regulatory Framework
Therefore, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources and Development Act (MPRDA) of 2002 provides for the promotion of profitability (Mutemeri et al., 2010). Mining and refining is licensed through the Diamond and Precious Metals Regulator (Hentschel et al., 2003).
Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining and Processing Methods
The artisanal and small-scale miners also process the gold through sluice methods (Phiri et al., 2015). As water flushes sediment through a sluice, gold particles sink and are captured by material covering the bottom of the sluice, often carpets (Obiri et al., 2010).
Environmental Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining
- Habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity
- Mercury pollution
- Degradation of water resources
- Problems of dust and noise Pollution
- Land degradation
Artisanal and small-scale mining can have effects on water quality in water bodies. Abandoned artisanal and small-scale mining pits without proper reclamation also lead to further degradation of the landscape (Shoko, 2005).
Socio-economic Concerns of Artisanal Gold Mining
- Increased employment opportunities
- Improvements in local income and economy
- Occupational health and safety
- Use of child labour in ASGM
Working conditions in artisanal and small-scale mining are not the most favorable in various countries. According to Hentschel et al. 2003), there are five major health and safety risks associated with artisanal and small scale mining and these are exposure to dust (silicosis), exposure to toxic chemicals (such as mercury and cyanide), noise and vibration effects, heat and lack of oxygen and effects of overexertion due to lack of adequate working space and use of inappropriate mining equipment and machinery).
Management of impacts of artisanal and small-Scale gold mining
- Policies governing ASM
- Environmental education and awareness
- Access to mining skills and training
- Access to mining equipment and machinery
- Easing the registration process for ASGM
However, most governments in developing countries are ignorant of informal artisanal and small-scale mining. Lack of skills is the main challenge for the artisanal and small-scale mining sector (Hinton, 2005).
Research Design
In this research, we used both qualitative and quantitative methods to obtain reliable and valid data and results. This research adopted qualitative and quantitative approaches to cover both environmental and socio-economic issues.
Site Characterisation and Description of ASGM
On the other hand, quantitative research design is a non-experimental, descriptive exploratory structure which involves quantifying relationships between variables (Madyise, 2013). A good research design is expected to ensure that there is maximum control over the factors that negatively affect the reliability and validity of the research results (Gwimbi and Dirwai, 2003).
Determination of Effects of ASGM on Vegetation Cover
Determination of the NDVI
According to Tucker et al. 2005), the NDVI is an index derived from reflectance measurements in the red and infrared parts of the electromagnetic energy spectrum. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) provides a measure of the vegetative cover on the land surface over a large area (Musa et al., 2011).
Toxic Metals analysis on soil, sediments and water quality
- Sample collection
- Preparation of samples for toxic and trace elements analysis
- Toxic elements analysis
- Trace elements analysis
- Determination of pH and conductivity of samples
The bottle was then labeled according to where the sample was collected and the type of sample. One half was to be analyzed and the other half was kept as a duplicate for future reference. Using a splitter also helped mix the sample to produce a homogeneous sample of the soil.
Assessment of Socio-economic Impact of ASGM
- Sampling of the population
- Instruments for data collection
- Reliability and validity
- Data analysis and presentation
The purpose of the selection was especially to give a broad overview of artisanal and small-scale gold mining. It also presents and discusses the socio-economic issues associated with artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
Site Description and Observation of ASGM
This process has created piles of material along river banks that can affect the flow of water in the river. The top of the closing tables is covered with a towel that can collect fine particles without gold.
Effects of ASGM on Vegetation Cover
Effects of ASGM on Vegetation Cover at Klein Letaba Mine
The evidence of how the artisanal and small gold miners affect or destroy the vegetation cover in the study area. This therefore suggests that the artisanal and small-scale gold mining at the site has contributed to the loss of vegetation cover in the area.
Effects of ASGM on Vegetation Cover at Louis Moore Mine
According to Defries and Townshend, (2007), the green color on the NDVI map indicates non-vegetated area. This is because the NDVI map showed a decrease in vegetation cover in the area with vegetation covering a range of 0.1 to 0.2 NDVI values as shown in Figure 4.5b.
Results of Analysis of soil samples
Concentration of toxic elements in soil
The average Co concentration was found to be within the South African soil quality standard of 20 ppm. The average concentration of Zn was found to be 75.82 ppm and 252.04 ppm in Louis Moore and Klein Letaba areas respectively.
Concentration trace elements in soil
The average concentration of V and Ce was found to be 60.38 ppm and 40.58 ppm respectively in Louis Moore. The average concentration of Rb and Zr was 3.54 ppm and 122.78 ppm, respectively, found in Louis Moore.
Results of Analysis of River Sediment Samples
Concentration of toxic elements in river sediments
The Cd concentration was 0.14 ppm at Klein Letaba, while it was not detected in the sediments at the Louis Moore mine. The average Co concentration was 12.14 ppm at Louis Moore and 16.63 ppm at the Klein Letaba mine.
Concentration of trace elements in river sediments
Average Zr concentrations were found to be 163.2 ppm at the Klein Letaba mine and 88.06 ppm at Louis Moore respectively. Lastly, La had an average concentration of 94.34 ppm at Klein Letaba and 57.42 ppm at the Louis Moore mine respectively.
Results of Water Analysis
Concentration of toxic elements in water
While the samples from the Louis Moore mine had mean values of 9.32 ppm and 2.76 ppm in gallium (Ga) and niobium (Nb), respectively. The concentration was found to be 0.1 ppm at the Louis Moore and 0.01 ppm at the Klein Letaba mine.
Then, the Klein Letaba mine had an average concentration of 0.01 of Zn and Pb. While the water samples from the Klein Letaba mine had an average concentration of 0.00 ppm and -0.99 ppm, respectively.
General Socio-economic Issues of ASGM
- Demographic information
- Gender and age distributions of the respondents
- Education level of the respondents
- Proximity of the respondents to the mining site
- Reasons for involvement in ASGM
- Period of involvement in ASGM
Adults and old people involved in artisanal and small-scale mining activities were found to be only 12.2%. A total of 49.1% of the artisanal and small-scale gold miners claimed to be involved full-time in ASGM activities.
Social Benefits and Problems of ASGM
- Income generation and employment opportunities
- Influence of ASGM on education in the study area
- Problems of use of child labour in ASGM
- Health and injuries problems
The problem of child labor was mentioned by a total of 5% of people involved in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. In the study area, children often work in artisanal and small-scale gold mining to help their families.
Challenges Faced by Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Miners
Police Disturbance and arrests
Lack of mining equipment and machinery
Addressing the Challenges of ASGM
This chapter presents management strategies for addressing/mitigating the environmental and social problems of ASGM in the study area. Social issues management strategies include formalizing and simplifying ASGM's registration process, providing appropriate mining equipment and machinery, and social policy enforcement and compliance.
Management of Environmental Impacts of ASGM
- Mine site rehabilitation
- Remediation of contaminated area
- Environmental education and awareness campaigns
- Enforcement and compliance of environmental policies
In the study area, there was a serious environmental problem of vegetation loss due to artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities. This management strategy can play a critical role in reducing and controlling the loss of vegetation cover in the study area due to artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities.
Management of Socio-economic Impacts of ASGM
Formalising and easing the registration process of ASGM
Environmental policies and implementation should include actions to be taken to manage artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities in order to prevent, reduce or mitigate harmful effects on nature and natural resources. In general, the implementation of the regulatory framework should ensure that artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities do not have harmful effects on the physical environment (i.e. resource degradation) and people (i.e. health and safety issues ).
Provision of appropriate mining equipment and machinery
Enforcement and compliance of social policies
Social policies and their enforcement will be measures taken to manage artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities with the aim of increasing the positive aspects (i.e. employment, income and infrastructure improvements) of mining activities and mitigating adverse effects such as child labour, health and injury problems study area. The study summary includes a summary of the problem statement, objectives, methodology and findings of the study.
Summary of the Study
All the miners indicated that there is no mine site rehabilitation of the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in the area. The Impact of Small-Scale Gold Mining on Livelihoods: A Case Study of West Gonja District in Ghana.
Conclusions
Recommendations
The environmental impact of small-scale gold mining in Ghana: identifying problems and possible solutions. A Comprehensive Assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana, Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.
The geographical location of the study area
Geological map of Giyani Greenstone Belt
Amalgamation process contaminating the environment
The flow of the methods and procedures followed in this research
Photograph (a) bench vacate mounted oven and photograph (b) Retsch RS
An illustration of the AAS instrument used in the analysis of toxic metals in
An illustration of the XRF instrument used for trace element analysis
Photograph showing the land degradation and uprooting of trees close to
Photograph showing unfilled excavation with soils collected in bags around
Photograph showing the sluicing table and discharge of polluted water to
The NDVI maps of the Klein Letaba Mine
The NDVI maps of Louis Moore Mine
Comparison of the concentration of toxic elements in soil
Comparison of the concentration of trace elements in soil
Comparison of concentration of toxic elements in sediments
Comparison of the concentration of trace elements in sediments
Comparison of concentration of toxic elements in water
Respondents by age groups
Level of qualification respondents
Distance of respondents from the ASGM mining sites
Reasons of involvement in ASGM
The period of involvement of the community miners to ASGM
Socio-economic issues of ASGM in GGB
Challenges facing artisanal and small-scale gold mining
Conceptual framework for addressing impacts of ASGM and their
